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‘Ghost’ experiments and the dissection of social learning in humans and animals

机译：“鬼”实验和人类和动物的社会学习剖析

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The focus of this review is the experimental techniques used to identify forms of social learning shown by humans and nonhuman animals. Specifically, the ‘ghost display’ and ‘end-state’ conditions, which have been used to tease apart imitative and emulative learning are evaluated. In a ghost display, the movements of an apparatus are demonstrated, often through the discrete use of fishing-line or hidden mechanisms, without a live model acting directly upon the apparatus so that the apparatus appears to be operated as if by a ‘ghostly’ agent. In an end-state condition, an observing individual is shown the initial state of the test apparatus, the apparatus is then manipulated out-of-sight and then represented to the individual in its final state. The aim of the ghost display condition is to determine whether individuals are able to emulate by replicating the movements of an apparatus, or perform a task, without requiring information about the bodily movements required to do so (imitation). The end-state condition is used to identify goal-emulation by assessing whether the observer can replicate the steps required to solve the task without having been shown the required body actions or task movements. The responses of individuals tested with either the ghost display and/or end-state conditions are compared to those of further individuals who have observed a full demonstration by either a human experimenter or a conspecific. The responses of a control group, to whom no information has been provided about the test apparatus or required actions, are also compared and evaluated. The efficacy of these experimental techniques employed with humans, nonhuman primates, dogs, rats and birds are discussed and evaluated. The experiments reviewed herein emphasise the need to provide ghost displays and end-state conditions in combination, along with full live demonstrations and a no-information control. Future research directions are proposed.
机译：这篇综述的重点是用于识别人类和非人类动物所表现出的社会学习形式的实验技术。具体来说，将评估用来逗弄模仿性学习和模仿性学习的“幽灵显示”和“结束状态”条件。在重影显示中，通常通过离散使用钓鱼线或隐藏机制来演示设备的运动，而没有实时模型直接作用在设备上，从而使设备看起来像是在“幽灵般”地操作。代理商。在结束状态条件下，将观察对象显示为测试设备的初始状态，然后在视线外操作该设备，然后以其最终状态显示给该个人。重影显示条件的目的是确定个人是否能够通过复制设备的动作来模仿或执行任务，而不需要有关这样做的身体动作的信息（模仿）。最终状态条件用于通过评估观察者是否可以复制解决任务所需的步骤来识别目标仿真，而无需向其展示所需的身体动作或任务移动。将使用重影显示和/或最终状态条件测试的个体的响应与已观察到人类实验者或同种动物的完整演示的其他个体的响应进行比较。还比较和评估未提供有关测试设备或所需措施的信息的对照组的响应。这些实验技术对人类，非人类灵长类动物，狗，大鼠和鸟类所采用的功效进行了讨论和评估。本文复习的实验强调需要结合提供完整的现场演示和无信息控制来提供重影显示和最终状态条件。提出了未来的研究方向。

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