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Rethinking loose coupling of rules and entrepreneurial practices among university scientists: a Japan-Israel comparison

机译：重新思考大学科学家之间的规则与创业实践之间的松散耦合：日以比较

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This paper explores the trajectories of the development and institutionalization of technology transfer structures and activities in Israel and Japan, two countries with strong science and technology sectors, from the 1950s to the present. We examine the local arrangements that existed before the introduction of the U.S. model in the 1980s and 90s, and how the Japanese and Israeli schemes of technology transfer evolved under the combination of local practices and U.S. influence. Drawing on new institutional theory's concept of loose coupling, we identify different types of loose coupling between formal structures and practices in Israeli and Japanese fields of technology transfer before and after the introduction of U.S. model. Our analysis show that the new configurations in the two countries are best analyzed by looking at two factors: (1) The perceived efficacy of the local, previous technology transfer arrangements, and; (2) the gap between the local arrangement and the U.S. technology transfer model. In the Israeli case, the former technology transfer model was similar to the one in the U.S.however, it was perceived as potentially ineffective and thus disputable. In the Japanese case, the former technology transfer model was seen as effective and largely uncontested. The introduction of the U.S. formal model with the university ownership of patents disrupted the informal technology transfer mechanisms in Japan. These historical trajectories explain why, on one hand, Israeli science community was quick to adopt to the U.S. model but contested its efficacy and legitimacy, and on the other hand, the Japanese science community modified the U.S. model through negotiating conditions that were as favorable to firms than universities as their previous mode of technology transfer. Through these cases, we show how loose coupling in each field developed and changed in response to global and local policies. We argue that attention to the local dynamics of loose coupling can help explain local variations in the global diffusion of the American style of technology transfer.
机译：本文探讨了1950年代至今以色列和日本这两个科技领域实力雄厚的国家的技术转让结构和活动的发展和制度化的轨迹。我们研究了在1980年代和90年代引入美国模式之前存在的当地安排，以及日本和以色列的技术转让计划如何在当地实践和美国影响的结合下演变。借鉴新的制度理论的松散耦合概念，我们确定了引入美国模式前后以色列和日本技术转让领域的正式结构与实践之间的不同类型的松散耦合。我们的分析表明，通过考虑以下两个因素，可以最好地分析这两个国家的新配置：（1）本地，以前的技术转让安排的有效效果；以及（2）本地安排与美国技术转让模型之间的差距。在以色列的案例中，前一种技术转让模式与美国类似，但是被认为可能无效并因此引起争议。在日本，以前的技术转让模型被认为是有效的，而且在很大程度上没有争议。具有大学所有权的美国正式模式的引入扰乱了日本的非正式技术转让机制。这些历史轨迹说明了为什么以色列科学界一方面迅速采用美国模式，却质疑其有效性和合法性；另一方面，日本科学界通过谈判条件对美国模式进行了修改，从而有利于公司而不是大学作为他们以前的技术转让方式。通过这些案例，我们展示了如何响应全球和地方政策在每个领域中发展和改变松散耦合。我们认为，关注松散耦合的局部动力学可以帮助解释美国技术转让风格在全球范围内的局部变化。

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