Decades of EU energy policy: towards politically driven markets

Talus Kim

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Decades of EU energy policy: towards politically driven markets

机译：数十年来的欧盟能源政策：走向政治驱动的市场

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Looking back over the last 30 years, the European Union's energy policy has gone through multiple significant changes. The national monopolies have been broken up and markets have been liberalised. However if we focus on the last 10 years, the picture is very different. Trust in the invisible hand of the markets is fading away and governmental control is returning in many areas. Looking at natural gas markets and infrastructure investments, this article illustrates the change in the EU s approach from markets and market mechanisms to increasingly intrusive public sector control. Not only is the public sector deciding what to invest and where, it is now also moving towards deciding which commercial projects should go forward and which should not. Instead of markets being driven by commercial logic, the motivations behind cross- border natural gas projects are often political in nature. This is not in itself uncommon since energy and politics have always been closely connected at global level. However, it conflicts with the EU's policies in this area, which are based on liberal market thinking.

机译：回顾过去的30年，欧盟的能源政策经历了多次重大变化。国家垄断已经瓦解，市场已经开放。但是，如果我们关注过去的十年，情况就大不一样了。对市场看不见的手的信任正在消失，政府控制在许多领域都在恢复。着眼于天然气市场和基础设施投资，本文说明了欧盟从市场和市场机制到日益介入的公共部门控制的转变。公共部门不仅在决定投资什么，在哪里投资，而且还在朝着决定哪些商业项目应该前进，哪些不应该前进的方向发展。跨市场天然气项目背后的动机通常不是政治上的，而是市场由商业逻辑驱动的。这本身并不罕见，因为能源和政治在全球范围内一直紧密相连。但是，这与基于自由市场思想的欧盟在这一领域的政策相冲突。

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《Journal of world energy law & business》 |2017年第5期|380-388|共9页
作者
Talus Kim;
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Univ Eastern Finland, UEF Law Sch, European Energy Law, Kuopio, Finland|Univ Helsinki, Energy Law, Joensuu, Finland;

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7. La banalisation du luxe (Democratization of luxury) Abstract : La plupart des achats pratiqués sont effectués par des clients occasionnels, ce qui a conduit les entreprises à s’adapter par une nouvelle stratégie. En effet, suite à l’intensification de la concurrence et à la concentration du secteur qui engendrent une contrainte de rentabilité immédiate, mais aussi en raison des impératifs nouveaux du marché, les maisons de luxe se voient obligées d’élargir leur offre afin d’ajouter à une clientèle dite traditionnelle une clientèle plus vaste. Dès lors, le secteur du luxe est progressivement passé d’une logique d’offre où seul un nombre restreint de personnes était ciblé, à une politique d’offre où des professionnels du marketing étudient la demande du marché afin d’orienter la production des biens vers un marché de masse. La banalisation est une problématique capitale et décisive car les maisons de luxe doivent préserver leur image de marque tout en élargissant leur clientèle : elles s’efforcent de créer et de pérenniser leurs marques, sans jamais oublier qu’une marque ne peut pas s’associer à n’importe quel objet, sous peine de menacer l’ensemble de ses représentations. Par conséquent, chaque nouveau produit présente un risque pour la gamme toute entière, d’où le risque d’une erreur stratégique par le choix de la banalisation. Le danger est de voir la clientèle aisée se tourner vers d’autres grands noms pratiquant toujours cet esprit d’élitisme qui caractérise le « luxe ». The luxury market is no longer reserved for an elite as its evolution over the last fifteen years clearly indicates. Luxury goods companies have been forced to adapt and resort to new strategies to take into account the fact that most purchases are now made by occasional clients. The keen competition and the on-going concentration in that sector – with the resulting short term profitability constraints - together with the new market conditions, have forced luxury goods companies to broaden their offer so as to add new customers to their traditional base. As a consequence, the luxury market has progressively moved away from an offer-driven logic – targeting a small number of people – in favor of an offer-based policy with marketing professionals studying market demand so as to direct the production of goods towards mass production. The democratization of luxury constitutes a major challenge for those companies which must preserve their image while broadening their customer base: they now strive to create and perpetuate their brand image, without ever forgetting that a brand cannot be associated to just any object, as this might constitute a threat to all its brand representations. Thus every new product constitutes a real threat to the whole range and there is a risk of making a strategic mistake by appealing to the mass market; and there is also a clear danger of seeing affluent customers turn to other great names that still foster this ‘elite spirit’ that characterizes « luxury ». [O] . Eric Vernier, Pierre Ghewy 100

机译：奢侈品的平庸化（奢侈品民主化）摘要：大多数购买都是由休闲客户制作的，这导致公司采用新战略。事实上，随着竞争的加剧和行业的集中导致了盈利的直接制约，而且由于市场的新要求，奢侈品公司被迫扩大其报价以便为所谓的传统客户增加一个更大的客户群。从那时起，奢侈品行业逐渐从以供应为导向的方式转变为只有少数人被定为供应方政策，营销人员正在研究市场需求以指导产品生产。货物进入大众市场。平庸化是一个至关重要且决定性的问题，因为豪宅必须保持其品牌形象，同时扩大其客户群：他们努力创造和延续其品牌，永远不要忘记一个品牌无法联想到在任何威胁他所有陈述的痛苦之下。因此，每个新产品都会带来整个色域的风险，因此通过选择平凡化就会产生战略错误的风险。危险的是看到富有的顾客转向其他仍在实践“豪华”特征的精英主义精神。奢侈品市场不会超过过去15年。奢侈品公司被迫采用新策略来充分利用其客户。由于市场领先的条件，激烈的竞争和该行业的持续集中迫使他们扩大了市场基础。因此，奢侈品市场已经从针对少数人的以报价驱动的逻辑向前发展 - 转而采用基于报价的政策与营销专业人士。对于那些必须在扩大客户群的同时保持形象的公司来说，奢侈品的民主化是一项重大挑战。对其所有品牌代表构成威胁。因此，每一种新产品都会对市场构成威胁，并且有可能通过吸引大众市场来制造战略错误;看到人们涌向那种“奢侈”的精神精神，也存在明显的危险。

Decades of EU energy policy: towards politically driven markets

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