The cloning of opioid peptides and receptors has led to the development of knockout mice deficient in a gene encoding for each peptide and each receptor. The major advantage of the knockout approach is the complete selectivity that the removal of a protein encoded for by a gene provides. These knockout animals are adding to our knowledge of the physiology, pathophysiology and pharmacology of opioid systems. In addition, they are providing real impact in addressing the long-standing debates over receptor subtype heterogeneity and functional cooperativity between receptor subtypes.
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