Abstract.Oviparous solitary ascidians, such asCiona intestinalis(L.), generally spawn freely into the water‐column where the eggs are fertilized and develop into free‐swimming non‐feeding larvae. In the laboratory, both spawning and settlement are controlled by light. It has been suggested that both spawning and development time are synchronized so that larval settlement takes place under optimal light conditions in the middle of the day when larvae are best able to locate shaded habitats. Our observations of field populations, however, have shown thatCionamay spawn and settle at any time of the day. Freely spawned eggs, which are negatively buoyant and slightly adhesive, may become attached to any available substratum. Ova can also be released in mucus strings which are particularly adhesive and will readily adhere to adultCionaand other surfaces. In all cases, fertilization and development proceed normally. Laboratory investigations have shown that newly hatched larvae may either escape to the plankton or be retained in the mucus string until settlement. Thus, the dense aggregations of both adults and newly settledCionawhich are commonly observed in the field could be explained by abbreviated dispersal due to mucus string spawning and epibenthic retention of eggs.SummaryIn the field,Ciona intestinalisembryos at different developmental stages are found simultaneously, indicating that spawning is not confined to a specific time of day. Free eggs are negatively buoyant and slightly adhesive. Eggs are spawned in mucus strings, where fertilization and development takes place. Such strings are retained epibenthically. Settlement and subsequent metamorphosis takes place in the mucus strings, but in the laboratory 40 to 60 of the larvae escape to the plankton. The aggregation of both adult and juvenileCionaobserved in the field can be explained by mucus string spawning and epibenthic retention of
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