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Teamworking under the microscope : employee behavior, job design and ideal compensation system

机译：显微镜下的团队合作：员工行为，工作设计和理想的薪酬体系

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摘要

Nowadays teams are used in almost any organization as they are able to respond adequately to the changes from the business environment. Thus, the focus of this thesis is to analyse team working thoroughly by looking at individual team members satisfaction, behaviour and career prospects. Only by investigating first the individuals we can get a proper picture of how the team is functioning as the sum of individual efforts, commitment and relationships among group members shape the actual team. Which are the compensation schemes preferred by the employees? Are there any other types of non-monetary rewards that contribute to higher satisfaction or helping behaviour? And does it really payoff to be part of a team in terms of increase cooperation among group members and potential promotions? These are the research questions that I plan to answer in my dissertation. In the specific case of human resource management it is proper for companies to adapt their compensation systems to their team-based structures (Zobal, 1998; Shaw et al., 2001). However, there are few studies about the effect of the new compensation design on employee satisfaction and helping behaviour. In line with equity theory and theory of cooperation it is important to investigate which other variables that managers can control influence team members satisfaction and cooperation. However, most prior research has studied the relationship between perceived fairness with pay and job satisfaction (Donovan, Drasgow & Munson, 1998; Masterson et al. 2000; Haar & Spell, 2009; Casuneanu, 2010) but little is known about the specific effects of different types of compensation applied on team member satisfaction and citizenship behaviour. Another variable considered to influence satisfaction and other positive work-related attitudes (i.e.cooperation), is autonomy, regarded by the literature as a non-monetary reward (Lawler, 1971). Nevertheless, previous research was either theoretical (Predergast, 2002; Raith, 2008) or considered autonomy at individual level (Karasek, 1979; Ortega, 2009). Given that there are few studies that take into account the influence of autonomy at team level the focus of this thesis is to study the effects of both individual and team-based autonomy on employee behaviour, satisfaction and career prospects. The contribution of this dissertation resides also in the introduction of both types of autonomy which are explored in detail and expected to work like a buffer that compensates for potential injustices of the reward system. While team working has proved to have advantages for productivity (Gomez-Mejia & Balkin, 1989; Hamilton, Nickerson & Owan, 2003), cooperation (Miller and Hamblin; 1963; Van der Vegt et al., 2003; Bamberger & Levi, 2009) and knowledge sharing (Siemsen, Balasubramanian & Roth, 2007) its effects on career advancement prospects received little attention. Furthermore and in line with employee learning theory and previous career development literature, the connection between productivity and promotion has been studied but the complex set of variables (at individual and group level) that affects advancement beyond this needs further investigation. The data that I use in this thesis comes from the fourth European Working Conditions Survey conducted in 2005 by the European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions1. This survey provides an analysis of working conditions in the 27 countries of the European Union, in the two candidate countries (Turkey and Croatia), in Switzerland and Norway. In total, nearly 30.000 individual workers were interviewed in face-to-face interviews in their own homes between September and November of 2005, but I kept mainly the observations referring to employees working in a team. The focus of this thesis is the team member given that it is essential to understand individual behavior and expectations in order to understand work groups. Once inside the team, individual satisfaction, cooperation and career opportunities have to be carefully looked at, as through a microscope, in order to analyze the underlying factors which influence them. I attempt to address this central theme through three essays, each one exploring a different research question and using the same dataset described above. Chapter 1 entitled The Antecedents of Satisfaction with Pay in Teams: Do Performance-based Compensation and Autonomy Keep Team-members Satisfied? aims to investigate the effects performance-based compensation and autonomy on satisfaction with pay in the context of team working. Given that previous literature suggests that organizations using team working should also change their compensation system accordingly, I aim at developing a complex perspective that considers the influence of different monetary and non-monetary rewards on satisfaction with pay. Drawing from agency theory, equity theory and theory of cooperation I predict that both piece rates and team-based rewards are associated with higher pay satisfaction. Moreover, I claim that autonomy in the form of both individual and team-based contribute to increased satisfaction with pay. Using a cross-sectional dataset of randomly selected European employees who are asked about specific working and living conditions, results confirm that both productivity based rewards and autonomy are important tools when it comes to determining employee satisfaction. Managers should know when to introduce rewards based only on individual merits so as to keep their workers motivated and when to give use autonomy as a buffer to compensate for potential fairness lacks in the payment system. In Chapter 2 entitled The Determinants of Helping Behavior in Teams I address the antecedents of helping behaviour in teams by looking at performance based compensation and autonomy. Given that previous literature has mainly examined each determinant separately, I aim at developing a complex perspective that considers their effect simultaneously. Using agency theory, social exchange theory and the theory of cooperation, I predict that piece rates and individual productivity payments decrease cooperation while and empowerment, at both individual and team level, leads to more helping behavior. This paper measures helping behaviour through the degree of assistance received by a team-member from other colleagues. We assume that workers receive help-from somebody else who may be called the good Samaritan- in two cases: first, when somebody else has something to gain if he or she offers help (for instance higher common reward or the perspective of receiving help himself) and second, when somebody else wants to help only because he or she can, this person being the Good Samaritan. I claim that a potential explanation that goes beyond compensation and autonomy refers to altruistic behaviour. Results yield support for the majority of the hypotheses confirming that managers could control their employees through either the compensation system or through autonomy in order to determine them to assist others. Practical implications are also identified and new directions for further research are proposed. In Chapter 3 entitled Team Participation and Career Advancement I study the relationship between team affiliation and career advancement. Given that previous literature has mainly examined the connection between productivity and promotion, it is interesting to analyze the complex set of variables that affect career prospects beyond this. Drawing from employee learning and career development literature I aim at investigating both the antecedents and consequences of team affiliation. I claim that both the level of education and tenure are associated with team participation while inside the group, together with individual and team-based autonomy, they lead to high career advancement prospects. The findings suggest that managers may prefer to select in teams employees who are highly educated or have a large history and experience with the organization and once inside the team, team affiliation, individual autonomy, higher education and team discretion in the form of team freedom over the choice of the group leader contribute to high career prospects as expected. The implication regarding attaining further education is in line with findings from Arrow (1972), Spilerman & Lunde (1991) and Chao & Ngai (2001) who consider education credential as an important signal about employee level of competence
机译：如今，几乎所有组织都可以使用团队，因为他们能够对业务环境的变化做出充分的响应。因此，本文的重点是通过查看各个团队成员的满意度，行为和职业前景来全面分析团队工作。只有首先调查个人，我们才能正确了解团队的运作方式，因为个人努力，承诺和小组成员之间的关系共同构成了实际的团队。员工偏爱哪些补偿方案？是否还有其他类型的非金钱奖励可以提高满意度或帮助他人行为？在小组成员之间加强合作和潜在晋升方面，成为团队成员真的有好处吗？这些是我打算在论文中回答的研究问题。在人力资源管理的特定情况下，公司应使其薪酬体系适应其基于团队的结构（Zobal，1998； Shaw等，2001）。但是，关于新薪酬设计对员工满意度和帮助行为的影响的研究很少。根据公平理论和合作理论，重要的是要研究管理者可以控制哪些其他变量来影响团队成员的满意度和合作。然而，大多数先前的研究已经研究了感知的公平与薪酬和工作满意度之间的关系（Donovan，Drasgow和Munson，1998年； Masterson等人，2000年； Haar＆Spell，2009年； Casuneanu，2010年），但对具体的影响知之甚少适用于团队成员满意度和公民行为的不同类型的补偿。自主性被认为是影响满意度和其他与工作相关的积极态度（即合作）的另一个变量，被文献认为是非金钱的报酬（Lawler，1971）。尽管如此，以前的研究要么是理论上的（Predergast，2002； Raith，2008），要么是个人层面的自治（Karasek，1979； Ortega，2009）。鉴于很少有研究考虑自主性在团队层面的影响，因此本文的重点是研究基于个人和团队的自主性对员工行为，满意度和职业前景的影响。本论文的贡献还在于介绍了两种类型的自治，对它们进行了详细的探讨，并有望像缓冲机制一样工作，以补偿奖励制度的潜在不公正之处。事实证明，团队合作对生产率具有优势（Gomez-Mejia和Balkin，1989； Hamilton，Nickerson和Owan，2003），合作（Miller和Hamblin； 1963； Van der Vegt等，2003； Bamberger＆Levi，2009） ）和知识共享（Siemsen，Balasubramanian和Roth，2007年）及其对职业发展前景的影响鲜有关注。此外，根据员工学习理论和先前的职业发展文献，已经研究了生产率与晋升之间的联系，但是影响超越此范围的晋升的复杂变量集（在个人和小组级别）需要进一步研究。我在本文中使用的数据来自欧洲改善生活和工作条件基金会2005年进行的第四次欧洲工作条件调查。这项调查分析了欧盟27个国家，两个候选国家（土耳其和克罗地亚），瑞士和挪威的工作条件。在2005年9月至11月之间，总共有将近30.000名工人在他们自己的家中接受了面对面的采访，但我主要保留的观察结果是指团队中的员工。本文的重点是团队成员，因为了解个人行为和期望对于理解工作组至关重要。一旦进入团队，就必须仔细观察个人满意度，合作和职业机会，例如通过显微镜，以分析影响他们的潜在因素。我试图通过三篇论文来解决这个中心主题，每篇论文探讨一个不同的研究问题，并使用上述相同的数据集。第1章标题为“团队中薪酬满意的先决条件：基于绩效的薪酬和自主权是否使团队成员满意？”旨在研究基于绩效的薪酬和自主权在团队合作中对薪酬满意度的影响。鉴于先前的文献表明，使用团队合作的组织也应相应地更改其薪酬体系，我的目的是建立一个复杂的观点，考虑不同的金钱和非金钱奖励对薪酬满意度的影响。借鉴代理理论，股权理论和合作理论我预测计件工资和基于团队的奖励都与更高的薪酬满意度相关。此外，我主张以个人和基于团队两种形式的自治有助于提高对薪酬的满意度。使用被询问特定工作和生活条件的随机选择的欧洲员工的横截面数据集，结果证实，在确定员工满意度时，基于生产率的奖励和自主权都是重要的工具。管理者应该知道何时仅根据个人优点来引入奖励，以保持员工的积极性，何时应利用自主权作为缓冲，以弥补支付系统中可能存在的公平性不足。在标题为“团队中帮助行为的决定因素”的第2章中，我将通过研究基于绩效的薪酬和自主性来解决团队中帮助行为的前因。鉴于先前的文献主要对每个行列式进行了单独研究，因此我旨在建立一个复杂的视角，同时考虑其影响。我使用代理理论，社会交换理论和合作理论，预测计件工资和个人生产率支付会减少合作，而个人和团队层面的授权会导致更多的帮助行为。本文通过团队成员从其他同事那里获得的帮助程度来衡量帮助行为。我们假设在两种情况下，工人会从别人那里得到帮助（可能被称为好撒玛利亚人）：首先，当别人提供帮助时可以从别人那里获得收益（例如更高的普通奖励或自己接受帮助的观点） ）其次，当其他人仅因为他或她可以而希望提供帮助时，此人就是好撒玛利亚人。我主张超越补偿和自治的潜在解释是无私行为。结果为大多数假设提供了支持，证实了经理们可以通过薪酬制度或自主权来控制员工，以决定他们是否可以协助他人。还确定了实际意义，并提出了进一步研究的新方向。在标题为“团队参与和职业发展”的第3章中，我研究了团队归属与职业发展之间的关系。鉴于先前的文献主要研究了生产率和晋升之间的联系，因此分析影响该领域职业前景的复杂变量集很有趣。从员工的学习和职业发展文献中汲取经验，我旨在研究团队联系的前因和后果。我声称受教育程度和任期都与团队的参与度有关，而在团队内部，再加上个人和基于团队的自治权，都可以带来很高的职业发展前景。调查结果表明，管理人员可能更喜欢选择受过良好教育或在组织中具有悠久历史和丰富经验的员工，一旦进入团队，便拥有团队隶属关系，个人自主权，高等教育和以团队自由度形式表现的团队自由度。团队领导者的选择有助于实现较高的职业前景。关于接受进一步教育的含义与Arrow（1972），Spileerman＆Lunde（1991）和Chao＆Ngai（2001）的发现相一致，他们认为教育证书是有关员工能力水平的重要信号。

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    Godeanu Ana-Maria;

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  • 年度 2012
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