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TECHNOLOGY AND POLLUTION: CHICAGO'S WATER POLICY, 1833--1930 (ILLINOIS).

机译：技术与污染：芝加哥的水政策，1833--1930年（伊利诺伊州）。

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摘要

During America's first age of urbanization, from 1830-1860, water pollution first became a significant environmental threat. For a century, sewage was the predominant source of pollution; industrial wastes varied in volume from city to city. Ironically, many attempts to control pollution through centralized sewer systems aggravated the problem.; This dissertation examines how Chicago managed its water pollution problems from its founding in 1833 until 1930, when the U.S. Supreme Court ordered it to provide complete sewage treatment. Water pollution was primarily an urban problem during these years, and Chicago was a leading innovator in managing it. By the 1920's, pollution was a regional problem, which even state governments found it difficult to control.; Chicago was a preeminent city of the industrial age, and its pollution control solutions reflected that culture. The city opened a centralized municipal water supply system in 1854 to curtail reliance on wells, which were contaminated by haphazardly disposed sewage. Two years later, it started the first integrated sewer system in America. It was intended to safely remove the city's sewage, which lay in open cesspools, gutters, and privy vaults. According to the widely accepted filth theory of disease, the decomposing sewage produced toxic vapors which carried cholera, typhoid, and yellow fever. Pollution control projects were the outcome of the "sanitary revolution," which started in England and spread to America during the 1840's. Sanitarians believed that integrated water supply and sewer systems most effectively regulated water quality and prevented sanitary nuisances. Most cities rejected the earth closet, which cleanly containerized sewage in the home, because it was more difficult to regulate the decentralized usage and emptying of these closets.; Unfortunately, Chicago's sewer system created a new pollution problem by concentrating sewage in the Chicago River., which became noxious and was considered, according to the filth theory, a disease source. During flood periods, the river washed pollution into Lake Michigan, the city's water supply. City engineer E. S. Chesbrough tried to reverse the flow of the Chicago River by deepening the Illinois & Michigan Canal, into which the river flowed. Chesbrough also built a tunnel two miles out under Lake Michigan to avoid drawing the contaminated water near the shoreline.; Technology was used to control pollution, as regulation was weak. When Chicago's health department was established in 1867, ordinances were formed to prohibit pollution, especially from industry; but it took ten years of litigation to impose effective control over the stockyards. Since health officials, with their ordinances, and civil engineers, with their technological programs, seldom coordinated their efforts pollution control policies were haphazard.; In the 1890's, bacteriology made environmental control more effective. It transformed conceptions of pollution by providing accurate measures of its components. It also prompted the appearance of water purification engineers, who combined civil engineering and bacteriology. These new experts developed effective water purification and sewage treatment techniques and began to rationalize regulatory policies.; While the bacteriological revolution was taking place, Chicago embarked upon a massive sewage control project predicated upon the obsolete filth theory of disease. In 1889, it started the Sanitary & Ship Canal to flush sewage away from Lake Michigan and the city's water supply once and for all. This did not work. In 1912, the city chlorinated drinking water and began sewage ten years later. Sewage pollution was under apparent control. By World War II, however, industrial pollution, especially toxic chemicals, proliferated and spawned a new environmental crisis which has yet to be resolved.
机译：在美国1830至1860年的城市化初期，水污染首先成为重大的环境威胁。一个世纪以来，污水一直是主要的污染源。不同城市的工业废物量各不相同。具有讽刺意味的是，许多通过集中式下水道系统控制污染的尝试使问题更加严重。本论文探讨了芝加哥从1833年成立到1930年美国最高法院下令其提供完整污水处理的方式，如何处理其水污染问题。这些年来，水污染主要是城市问题，芝加哥是管理水污染的领先创新者。到1920年代，污染已成为一个地区性问题，甚至州政府也发现难以控制。芝加哥是工业时代的杰出城市，其污染控制解决方案反映了这种文化。为了减少对井的依赖，该市于1854年开放了集中式市政供水系统，井被随意处置的污水污染了。两年后，它启动了美国第一个一体化下水道系统。目的是为了安全地清除城市污水，这些污水位于敞开的污水池，排水沟和私人金库中。根据被广泛接受的疾病污秽理论，腐烂的污水产生有毒的蒸气，携带霍乱，伤寒和黄热病。污染控制项目是“卫生革命”的结果，“卫生革命”始于英国，并在1840年代传播到美国。卫生人员认为，综合的供水和下水道系统最有效地调节了水质并防止了卫生滋扰。大多数城市都拒绝使用壁橱，该壁橱将家中的污水干净地容器化，因为要规范这些壁橱的分散使用和排空更加困难。不幸的是，芝加哥的下水道系统通过将芝加哥河中的污水浓缩而产生了一个新的污染问题。根据污秽理论，芝加哥河的污水变得有害并被认为是一种疾病源。在洪水期间，河水将污染冲入了密歇根湖，该市的供水源。城市工程师E.S. Chesbrough试图通过加深伊利诺伊州和密歇根州的运河来扭转芝加哥河的水流。切斯伯勒还在密歇根湖下面建了一条两英里外的隧道，以避免将污染的水吸入海岸线附近。由于监管薄弱，技术被用来控制污染。 1867年芝加哥卫生部门成立时，制定了禁止污染的法令，特别是禁止工业污染。但是对牲畜场实行有效控制需要花费十年的诉讼时间。由于卫生官员及其法令和土木工程师及其技术程序很少协调工作，因此污染控制政策是偶然的。在1890年代，细菌学使环境控制更加有效。通过提供准确的污染衡量指标，它改变了污染的概念。它还促使出现了将土木工程学和细菌学相结合的净水工程师。这些新专家开发了有效的水净化和污水处理技术，并开始合理化监管政策。细菌革命发生时，芝加哥着手进行一项大规模的污水处理项目，该项目基于过时的污秽疾病理论。 1889年，它启动了“卫生与船舶运河”，一劳永逸地冲走了密歇根湖和城市供水的污水。这没有用。 1912年，该市对饮用水进行了氯化处理，十年后开始排污。污水污染得到明显控制。然而，到第二次世界大战，工业污染，特别是有毒化学物质激增并催生了新的环境危机，尚未解决。

著录项

  • 作者

    O'CONNELL, JAMES CHARLES.;

  • 作者单位

    The University of Chicago.;

  • 授予单位 The University of Chicago.;
  • 学科 History United States.; Environmental Sciences.
  • 学位 Ph.D.
  • 年度 1980
  • 页码
  • 总页数
  • 原文格式 PDF
  • 正文语种 eng
  • 中图分类 美洲史;环境科学基础理论;
  • 关键词

  • 入库时间 2022-08-17 11:51:33

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