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Cyanobacterial Toxin

机译：蓝细菌毒素

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Cyanobacteria which are known as blue-green algae can be found widespread around the world such as in lakes, ponds, rivers and brackish waters. Both toxin and non-toxin producing cyanobacterial species have been reported to make blooms. In the case of cyanobacterial toxins (cyanotoxins), there are two known groups as cytotoxins and biotoxins. The biotoxins comprise the alkaloids such as anatoxin-a, anatoxin-a(s), saxitoxins, cylindrospermopsin or lipopolysaccharides, and the cyclic peptides such as microcystins and nodularins. Cyanotoxins are shown to cause acute lethal, acute, chronic and sub-chronic poisoning in wild and domestic animals, and human. In studies both biological and chemical methods are used to determine cyanotoxins. The specific methods for toxin classification can be summarized as; bioassays, ELISA (enzyme linked immunosorbent assay), PPIA (Protein phosphatase inhibition assay), and MMPB (2-Methoxy-1- methyl-3-phenylbuturic acid). Additionally, the methods that are used to determine of toxins are can be classified as follow; NMR (Nuclear magnetic Resonance, MS (Mass Spectrometry), HPLC (high performance liquid chromatography) coupled with either photodiode array (PDA), HPLC-UV (High-performance liquid chromatography), TLC (Thin layer chromatography), MALDI-TOF-MS (matrix assisted laser/desorption ionization- time-of-flight-mass spectrometry), LC-MS (Liquid chromatography hyphenated with electrospray ionization triple quadrupole mass spectrometry). Introduction Cyanobacteria, which are known as blue-green algae, are prokaryotic microorganisms that live in both freshwater, such as; in lakes, ponds, rivers, and reservoir, and in marine systems (Ouellette and Wilhelm, 2003). While cyanobacteria are one of the very few special groups that can perform oxygenic photosynthesis and respiration simultaneously in the same compartment; many cyanobacterial species are known to be able to fix nitrogen (Carmichael, 2001; Vermaas, 2001). Most of the references describe cyanobacteria as Gram-negative and Gram-negative cell wall of cyanobacteria has been previously shown by the electron microscopy (Stewart et al., 2006). Cyanobacteria can be seen in single-celled form or colonial form such as filaments, sheets or even hollow balls. The light responses exhibited by cyanobacteria apparently are the adaptation mechanisms for maintaining optimal light regimens to support photosynthesis, as well as to avoid from burial caused by sedimentation. In addition to light responses, there have been three reports related with cyanobacterial chemotaxis, or chemotaxis-related behaviours (Costa et al., 2006).Cyanobacteria “Blooms”, which can be seen as blue-green, milky blue, green, reddish, or dark brown blooms, and scum, typically occur in freshwater (Richardsont and Castenholz 1989; Rivasseau et al., 1998). Nutrient-rich bodies of water can support the rapid growth of cyanobacteria. Cyanobacterial blooms and their effects have been reported to be widespread, frequent and typically seasonal. Both toxin and non-toxin producing species are known to cause cyanobacterial blooms (Carmichael, 2001; Christiansen et al., 2008). They also produce many secondary metabolites that either are toxic or show bioactivity on other organisms. One of the surveys has shown that an average of 59% of blooms contains toxins, and hepatotoxic blooms are more common than the neurotoxic ones (Rantala et al., 2006). Cyanotoxins have two groups as; cytotoxins and biotoxins and they are both known to be responsible for acute lethal, chronic and sub-chronic poisoning of wild and domestic animals and human (Molica et al., 2005) The biotoxins include the alkaloids such as anatoxin-a, anatoxin-a(s), saxitoxins, cylindrospermopsin or lipopolysaccharides, and the cyclic peptides such as microcystins, nodularins (Carmichael, 2001; Hitzfeld et al., 2000). Microcystin and nodularin Microcystins are non-ribosomally synthesized via peptide synthetases, polyketide synthetases, and a
机译：蓝细菌被称为蓝藻，可在世界各地发现，例如在湖泊，池塘，河流和咸水中。据报道，产生毒素和不产生毒素的蓝细菌物种都可以开花。就蓝细菌毒素（cyanotoxins）而言，有两个已知的组，分别是细胞毒素和生物毒素。生物毒素包括生物碱，例如抗毒素a，抗毒素-a，毒毒素，环精子环蛋白或脂多糖，以及环状肽，例如微囊藻毒素和结节蛋白。氰毒素已显示在野生和家畜以及人类中引起急性致命，急性，慢性和亚慢性中毒。在研究中，生物学和化学方法都用于测定氰毒素。毒素分类的具体方法可归纳为：生物测定，ELISA（酶联免疫吸附测定），PPIA（蛋白质磷酸酶抑制测定）和MMPB（2-甲氧基-1-甲基-3-苯基丁酸）。此外，用于确定毒素的方法可以分类如下： NMR（核磁共振，MS（质谱），HPLC（高效液相色谱）和光电二极管阵列（PDA），HPLC-UV（高效液相色谱），TLC（薄层色谱），MALDI-TOF- MS（基质辅助激光/解吸电离飞行时间质谱），LC-MS（液相色谱联用电喷雾电离三重四极杆质谱联用）引言蓝细菌是原核微生物。它们生活在淡水中，例如在湖泊，池塘，河流和水库中以及在海洋系统中（Ouellette和Wilhelm，2003年），而蓝细菌是极少数能够同时进行氧的光合作用和呼吸作用的特殊群体之一。同一隔间;已知许多蓝细菌能够固定氮（Carmichael，2001; Vermaas，2001）。大多数参考文献将蓝细菌描述为革兰氏阴性和革兰氏阴性细胞先前已经通过电子显微镜显示了蓝细菌的壁（Stewart等，2006）。蓝细菌可以单细胞形式或菌落形式出现，例如细丝，薄片甚至空心球。蓝细菌表现出的光响应显然是维持最佳光照方案的适应机制，以支持光合作用以及避免因沉积而埋葬。除光反应外，还有三篇有关蓝细菌趋化性或与趋化性相关的行为的报道（Costa等人，2006年）。蓝细菌“花”可以看成是蓝绿色，乳蓝色，绿色，红色，或暗褐色的花朵和浮渣，通常发生在淡水中（Richardsont和Castenholz 1989; Rivaseau等人，1998）。营养丰富的水体可以支持蓝细菌的快速生长。据报道，蓝藻水华及其影响是广泛的，频繁的并且通常是季节性的。已知产生毒素的物种和产生毒素的非物种都导致蓝细菌大量繁殖（Carmichael，2001; Christiansen等，2008）。它们还会产生许多次级代谢产物，这些代谢产物具有毒性或对其他生物体具有生物活性。一项调查显示，平均有59％的花朵含有毒素，而具有肝毒性的花朵比神经毒性的花朵更为常见（Rantala等，2006）。氰毒素有两类：细胞毒素和生物毒素，它们均引起野生，家养动物和人类的急性致死，慢性和亚慢性中毒（Molica等，2005）。生物毒素包括生物碱，如抗毒素-a，抗毒素-a （一种或多种），毒素，环精子蛋白酶或脂多糖，以及环肽如微囊藻毒素，结节蛋白（Carmichael，2001; Hitzfeld et al。，2000）。微囊藻毒素和结节菌素微囊藻毒素通过肽合成酶，聚酮化合物合成酶和

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