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Greening rubber? Political ecologies of plantation sustainability in Laos and Myanmar

机译：橡胶绿化？老挝和缅甸人工林可持续发展的政治生态

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Over the past decade, the cultivation of rubber trees has expanded rapidly throughout the Mekong region to non-traditional rubber growing areas of Laos and Myanmar. Prompted by rising prices from 1990 to 2010 and government agro-industrialization policies, farmers and investors have rushed to plant the new boom crop. A latex price crash in 2011, however, has made it more challenging for small-scale producers to earn an income, leading to uneven social-ecological transformations and economic consequences. Several proposals have been made to address these challenges by transforming rubber into a more economically, socially, and environmentally sustainable crop. In this paper, which emerged from one such project to investigate the potential for "green" rubber, we argue that the sustainability of rubber is a challenging and elusive prospect - particularly in resource frontier contexts like Laos and Myanmar. Concepts like "sustainability" or "green" production are vague and malleable. They can be imbued with a variety of contradictory meanings, which often do not address the most socially and environmentally problematic aspects of cash crop expansion. Sustainable rubber, if rigorously and specifically defined, would be exceedingly difficult to reach in both countries, due to the ways in which political-economic and governance factors interact with the biophysical and social characteristics of the crop. Instead, we recommend using sustainability as a political tool for highlighting the most harmful socio-environmental impacts of rubber and generating debate concerning the best ways to address these, thus limiting unsustainable practices.
机译：在过去的十年中，橡胶树的种植已在整个湄公河地区迅速扩展到老挝和缅甸的非传统橡胶种植区。在1990年至2010年价格上涨以及政府的农业工业化政策的推动下，农民和投资者都急于种植新的繁荣作物。然而，2011年乳胶价格暴跌使小规模生产者获得收入变得更具挑战性，导致不均衡的社会生态转型和经济后果。为了将这些橡胶转化成更具经济，社会和环境可持续性的作物，已经提出了一些建议来应对这些挑战。本文是从一个研究“绿色”橡胶潜力的项目得出的，我们认为橡胶的可持续性是一个充满挑战和难以捉摸的前景，尤其是在老挝和缅甸这样的资源前沿背景下。诸如“可持续性”或“绿色”生产之类的概念是模糊和可延展的。它们可能充满各种矛盾的含义，而这些含义通常无法解决经济作物扩张中最具有社会和环境问题的方面。如果严格和明确地定义可持续橡胶，由于政治，经济和治理因素与农作物的生物物理和社会特性相互作用的方式，在这两个国家将很难实现。相反，我们建议使用可持续性作为强调橡胶最有害的社会环境影响的政治工具，并引发有关解决这些问题的最佳方法的辩论，从而限制不可持续的做法。

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