Oceanographic changes caused by the emerging Central American isthmus, which completely sev- ered connections between the Caribbean Sea and tropical Pacific Ocean about 3.5 million years ago, began to stimulate evolution of Caribbean reef corals and benthic foraminifera in the Late Miocene. At that time, first appearances of benthic foraminifera increased, especially those species strongly as- sociated with carbonate-rich substrata; reef corals diversified dramatically; and the carbonate content of southern Cari- bbean deep-sea sediments increased.
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