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Hovering and intermittent flight in birds

机译：鸟类盘旋和间歇飞行

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Two styles of bird locomotion, hovering and intermittent flight, have great potential to inform future development of autonomous flying vehicles. Hummingbirds are the smallest flying vertebrates, and they are the only birds that can sustain hovering. Their ability to hover is due to their small size, high wingbeat frequency, relatively large margin of mass-specific power available for flight and a suite of anatomical features that include proportionally massive major flight muscles (pectoralis and supracoracoideus) and wing anatomy that enables them to leave their wings extended yet turned over (supinated) during upstroke so that they can generate lift to support their weight. Hummingbirds generate three times more lift during downstroke compared with upstroke, with the disparity due to wing twist during upstroke. Much like insects, hummingbirds exploit unsteady mechanisms during hovering including delayed stall during wing translation that is manifest as a leading-edge vortex (LEV) on the wing and rotational circulation at the end of each half stroke. Intermittent flight is common in small- and medium-sized birds and consists of pauses during which the wings are flexed (bound) or extended (glide). Flap-bounding appears to be an energy-saving style when flying relatively fast, with the production of lift by the body and tail critical to this saving. Flap-gliding is thought to be less costly than continuous flapping during flight at most speeds. Some species are known to shift from flap-gliding at slow speeds to flap-bounding at fast speeds, but there is an upper size limit for the ability to bound (～0.3 kg) and small birds with rounded wings do not use intermittent glides.
机译：鸟类的移动，悬停和间歇飞行这两种样式具有极大的潜力，可为自动飞行器的未来发展提供信息。蜂鸟是飞行中最小的脊椎动物，并且是唯一能够持续盘旋的鸟类。它们的盘旋能力是由于它们的体积小，机翼搏动频率高，可用于飞行的质量比功率相对较大以及一系列解剖特征，其中包括成比例的主要飞行肌肉（胸肌和胸aco上肌）以及使它们能够飞行的机翼解剖学在中风时保持翅膀伸展而翻身（俯仰），这样他们就可以产生升力来支撑自己的体重。蜂鸟在下冲程时产生的升力是上冲程时的三倍，差异是由于上冲程时机翼扭曲所致。就像昆虫一样，蜂鸟在盘旋过程中会利用不稳定的机制，包括机翼平移过程中的延迟失速，这表现为机翼上的前缘涡流（LEV）和每半个冲程结束时的旋转循环。间歇性飞行在中小型鸟类中很常见，包括停顿，在停顿期间机翼弯曲（束缚）或伸展（滑行）。飞行相对较快时，襟翼起跳似乎是一种节能方式，身体和尾巴产生的升力对于这种节省至关重要。襟翼滑行被认为比在大多数速度下飞行期间连续襟翼的成本低。已知有些物种会从低速的襟翼滑行转变为高速度的襟翼滑行，但是对绑定能力的限制是上限（约0.3千克），带有圆形翅膀的小鸟不使用间歇滑行。

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