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Zinc oxide microrods and nanorods: different antibacterial activity and their mode of action against Gram-positive bacteria

机译：氧化锌微棒和纳米棒：不同的抗菌活性及其对革兰氏阳性细菌的作用方式

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The development of antibiotic resistance among pathogenic bacteria combined with increased implant-associated infections have determined a great interest towards new bactericidal materials containing various organic and inorganic substances. Among them, zinc oxide (ZnO) derived materials have received considerable attention due to their unique antibacterial, antifungal, and UV filtering properties as well as high catalytic and photochemical activities. In the present work, we investigate the antimicrobial properties against two Gram-positive bacteria (Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus subtilis) of ZnO microrods (MRs) and nanorods (NRs), produced in bulk quantities through simple and inexpensive methods. We demonstrate that the antimicrobial effect is strongly dependent on the rod size and dose. Scanning electron microscopy analysis revealed that the two investigated microbial types interact differently with the ZnO-MRs and NRs due to their different morphology. This resulted in different outcomes as reported by their respective Colony Forming Unit (CFU) capabilities. Moreover, Fourier Transform Infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy revealed that changes in cell outer structures, i.e. membrane and exopolysaccharides (EPS), produced by the interaction with the ZnO structures, are responsible for the antimicrobial mechanism without the accumulation of reactive oxygen species. This was further strengthened by the increased survival observed in the case of bacterial cells treated in the presence of an osmotic support, like glycerol. In addition, Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS) analysis showed that reduced cell viability is not strictly correlated to increased zinc ion release in the suspension. We then concluded that ZnO-NRs have a superior antimicrobial effect against both S. aureus and B. subtilis at much lower doses when compared to ZnO-MRs. This is mainly due to the smaller diameter of the NRs, which promotes surface damaging and protein alteration of the cell wall. Finally, the lack of toxicity and the antimicrobial properties of ZnO-NRs versus S. aureus, validated in vivo using the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans as host infection model, confirm the promising exploitation of ZnO-NRs in biomedical applications.
机译：致病细菌中抗生素抗性的发展与植入物相关感染的增加相结合，已经引起了人们对含有各种有机和无机物质的新型杀菌材料的极大兴趣。其中，氧化锌（ZnO）衍生的材料因其独特的抗菌，抗真菌和UV过滤性能以及高催化和光化学活性而受到了广泛的关注。在目前的工作中，我们研究了通过简单而廉价的方法大量生产的ZnO微棒（MRs）和纳米棒（NRs）对两种革兰氏阳性细菌（金黄色葡萄球菌和枯草芽孢杆菌）的抗菌性能。我们证明了抗菌作用在很大程度上取决于棒的大小和剂量。扫描电子显微镜分析显示，两种研究的微生物类型由于其形态不同而与ZnO-MRs和NRs相互作用不同。如其各自的菌落形成单位（CFU）的能力所报告的，这导致了不同的结果。此外，傅立叶变换红外（FT-IR）光谱显示，与ZnO结构相互作用产生的细胞外部结构（即膜和胞外多糖（EPS））的变化是抗菌机制的原因，而没有活性氧的积累。在存在渗透性支持物（如甘油）的情况下处理细菌细胞时，观察到存活率的提高，进一步增强了这一点。此外，电感耦合等离子体质谱（ICP-MS）分析表明，降低的细胞活力与悬浮液中锌离子释放的增加并不严格相关。然后我们得出结论，与ZnO-MRs相比，ZnO-NRs在低得多的剂量下对金黄色葡萄球菌和枯草芽孢杆菌均具有优异的抗菌作用。这主要是由于NRs的直径较小，从而促进了表面损伤和细胞壁蛋白质改变。最后，使用线虫秀丽隐杆线虫作为宿主感染模型在体内进行了验证，ZnO-NRs与金​​黄色葡萄球菌相比，缺乏毒性和抗菌特性，证实了ZnO-NRs在生物医学中的应用前景广阔。

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