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Measuring soil frost depth in forest ecosystems with ground penetrating radar

机译：用探地雷达测量森林生态系统的土壤霜冻深度

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Soil frost depth in forest ecosystems can be variable and depends largely on early winter air temperatures and the amount and timing of snowfall. A thorough evaluation of ecological responses to seasonally frozen ground is hampered by our inability toadequately characterize the frequency, depth, duration and intensity of soil frost events. We evaluated the use of ground penetrating radar to nondestructively delineate soil frost under field conditions in three forest ecosystems. Soil frost depth wasmonitored periodically using a 900 MHz antenna in South Burlington, Vermont (SB), Sleepers River Watershed, North Danville, Vermont (SR) and Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest, New Hampshire (HBEF) during winter 2011 -2012 on plots with snow and cleared of snow. GPR-based estimates were compared to data from thermistors and frost tubes, which estimate soil frost depth with a color indicating solution. In the absence of snow, frost was initially detected at a depth of 8-10 cm. Dry snow up to 35 cm deep, enhanced near-surface frost detection, raising the minimum frost detection depth to 4-5 cm. The most favorable surface conditions for GPR detection were bare soil or shallow dry snow where frost had penetrated to the minimum detectable depth. Unfavorableconditions included: standing water on frozen soil, wet snow, thawed surface soils and deep snow pack. Both SB and SR were suitable for frost detection most of the winter, while HBEF was not. Tree roots were detected as point reflections and were readilydiscriminated from continuous frost reflections. The bias of GPR frost depth measurements relative to thermistors was site dependent averaging 0.1 cm at SB and 1.1 cm at SR, and was not significantly different than zero. When separated by snow manipulation treatment at SR, overestimation of soil frost depth (5.5 cm) occurred on plots cleared of snow and underestimation (-1.5 cm) occurred on plots with snow. Despite some limitations posed by site and surface suitability, GPR could be useful for adding aspatial component to pre-installed soil frost monitoring networks.
机译：森林生态系统中的土壤霜冻深度是可变的，并且在很大程度上取决于初冬的气温以及降雪的数量和时间。由于我们无法充分表征土壤霜冻事件的频率，深度，持续时间和强度，因此无法全面评估对季节性冻土的生态响应。我们评估了在三个森林生态系统的田间条件下使用探地雷达无损描绘土壤霜的情况。在2011年-2012年冬季，在有积雪的土地上，使用900 MHz天线在佛蒙特州南伯灵顿（SB），北河道丹佛市，佛蒙特州（SR）的Sleepers River流域和新罕布什尔州的哈伯德布鲁克实验森林（HBEF）中定期监测土壤霜冻深度并清除了积雪。将基于GPR的估算值与热敏电阻和霜冻管的数据进行比较，这些数据通过颜色指示溶液估算土壤霜冻深度。在没有雪的情况下，最初在8-10厘米的深度检测到霜冻。高达35厘米深的干雪，增强了近地表霜冻检测能力，将最低霜冻检测深度提高到4-5厘米。用于GPR检测的最有利的表面条件是裸露的土壤或浅层干燥的积雪，其中霜冻已渗透到最小可检测深度。不利条件包括：冻结土壤上的积水，湿雪，融化的表层土壤和深积雪。在整个冬季的大部分时间里，SB和SR都适合霜冻检测，而HBEF则不适合。树木的根被检测为点反射，并容易与连续的霜冻反射区分开。 GPR霜深度测量值相对于热敏电阻的偏差取决于位置，在SB处平均为0.1 cm，在SR处平均为1.1 cm，并且与零的差异不显着。在SR上通过除雪处理进行分隔时，在积雪的土地上高估了土壤霜冻深度（5.5 cm），在积雪的土地上低估了（-1.5 cm）土壤。尽管场地和表面适应性带来了一些限制，但GPR可能有助于在预先安装的土壤霜冻监测网络中添加沥青成分。

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